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Overview

Behaviorism, a theory developed in the 1920s, is centered around observable behaviors and external stimuli. It views learning as a product of a stimulus-response mechanism, disregarding internal mental processes. The key concepts of behaviorism include classical conditioning (e.g., Pavlov’s dogs) and operant conditioning (e.g., Skinner’s pigeons). These concepts, along with Robert Gagné’s Nine Events of Instruction and John B. Watson’s formalization of behaviorism, form the foundation of this theory.

Implications of Behaviorism for Instructional Design 

Behaviorism emphasizes measurable objectives and outcomes, using immediate feedback and repetition. It supports structured learning with clear goals and reinforces desired behaviors through conditioning, making it useful for digital and corporate training.

My Opinion on the Strengths and Limitations of Behaviorism in Higher Education and Non-Profits

In higher education, behaviorism is valuable for its structured approach, providing clear goals and  immediate feedback. This helps students stay on track and achieve measurable outcomes. However, it may need to pay more attention to intrinsic motivation and critical thinking skills. In non-profits, behaviorism can help train volunteers with clear, observable goals and reinforcement, ensuring consistent and reliable behavior. However, it may overlook the importance of passion and intrinsic motivation that drives many volunteers. Balancing behaviorism with other learning theories can address these limitations.

 Behaviorism Learning Scenario

Imagine an online learning experience for lawyers to learn basic design principles using Canva, driven by behaviorism. During Zoom sessions, lawyers receive tutorials and complete design exercises. Positive reinforcement is provided through verbal praise and constructive feedback, encouraging the correct application of design principles. Negative reinforcement involves redoing exercises if criteria are not met, with detailed feedback for improvement. Observable behaviors, such as the successful completion of design tasks and improved quality over time, indicate that learning has occurred. This scenario uses behaviorism by focusing on feedback, observable behaviors, and reinforcing desired actions.

Cognitivism Overview: Cognitivism is a learning theory that emphasizes the mental processes involved in learning. Unlike Behaviorism, which focuses on observable actions, Cognitivism considers behaviors as manifestations of underlying thoughts. It suggests that learning is a complex process that requires connecting new information with existing cognitive structures.

Historical Development: Cognitivism gained prominence in the 1950s as researchers sought alternatives to Behaviorism. Jean Piaget was a key figure, known for his theory of cognitive development in children. He identified four developmental stages:

1. Sensorimotor Stage (up to age 2): Exploration of the environment.
2. Preoperational Stage (ages 2-7): Development of language and symbolic play.
3. Concrete Operational Stage (ages 7-11): Understanding of concrete objects and logical reasoning.
4. Formal Operational Stage: Emergence of abstract thinking and hypothetical reasoning.

Piaget’s work demonstrated the relationship between behavior and cognitive processes.

Contributions of Lev Vygotsky: Lev Vygotsky introduced the Social Development Theory, highlighting the role of social interaction in learning. He developed the concept of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), which identifies the optimal learning state where tasks are challenging but achievable with support. This concept underscores the importance of scaffolding in education.

Jerome Bruner’s Influence: Jerome Bruner expanded on Cognitivism by studying the impact of the environment on cognition. He emphasized active engagement and the construction of meaning by learners, advocating for the inclusion of Cognitivist principles in educational policy.

Albert Bandura’s Social Cognition: Albert Bandura introduced the theory of social cognition, which considers both internal cognitive processes and environmental interactions, including social factors. He highlighted the role of learner agency, which has enhanced the focus on motivation in education.

Cognitivism in Instructional Design: Cognitivism remains vital in instructional design, providing insights into how learning occurs and what learners need to engage effectively. Understanding cognitive load—the mental effort required to process information—is crucial for designing educational materials. Instructional designers should aim to minimize cognitive load to enhance learning experiences and outcomes.

Application in Higher Education: In higher education, student agency is crucial as learners pursue specific career goals. Cognitivism helps in designing materials that manage cognitive load, supporting students’ success. However, addressing the diverse social cognitive factors of university students can be challenging for instructional designers.

Example – Udemy Course:
A Udemy course on Instructional Design illustrates Cognitivism principles. The course is well-structured, progressing from basic to advanced topics, with clear titles and a clickable menu for easy navigation. It addresses cognitive load with multimodal content, including videos with subtitles and transcripts. However, reducing cognitive load could be improved by incorporating a variety of content modalities instead of relying solely on videos.

By understanding and applying Cognitivist theories, instructional designers can create more effective and engaging learning experiences tailored to the cognitive needs of learners.

Constructivism Overview: Constructivism is a learning theory that emphasizes the learner’s active role and experience in the learning process. It focuses on learners’ intrinsic motivation and engagement, viewing them as constructors of their own learning experiences.

Key Theorists and Concepts: Lev Vygotsky’s work is foundational to Constructivism, highlighting the social aspects of learning and the importance of collaboration. Jerome Bruner’s concept of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) is also crucial. The ZPD suggests that learners should be challenged with tasks that are slightly beyond their current abilities but still achievable with support, a concept known as scaffolding.

Learner Motivation: Constructivism places high importance on intrinsic motivation, which is driven by the learner’s internal interests and goals, as opposed to extrinsic motivation, which is influenced by external factors like teachers or peers. Keller’s ARCS model (Attention, Relevance, Confidence, Satisfaction) provides a framework for building learner motivation.

Social Constructivism: Social Constructivism posits that learning occurs through interactions with content, teachers, and peers. This theory encourages the use of interactive tasks such as:

• Reciprocal Teaching: Students teach content to each other.
• Cooperative Learning: Small groups work together on activities.
• Situated Learning: Learning occurs in meaningful, real-world contexts.

Constructivism in Higher Education: Constructivism is particularly relevant in higher education, where tasks like group work, real-world activities, and presentations align with Constructivist values. University students often have intrinsic motivation due to their choice of major and courses. However, effectively scaffolding activities for students with diverse backgrounds and motivations can be challenging.

Example: EFL Class for Spanish Speakers

• ZPD:

  • Understand and use common English idioms in conversation.
  • Identify and explain idioms in various contexts.
  • Create sentences or short stories using English idioms.

• Scaffolding and Social Constructivism Strategies:

  • Students work in pairs to read a short story containing several English idioms and identify their meanings.
  • In small groups, students create a skit using the idioms from the story and present it to the class.
  • Individually, students write a short story in English incorporating at least five idioms they have learned.

Constructivism provides a robust framework for designing educational experiences that engage learners actively and meaningfully, fostering deeper understanding and retention of content.

Overview: Connectivism is a contemporary learning theory developed by George Siemens and Stephen Downes to address the impact of emerging technology in education. Building on earlier theories like Constructivism, Connectivism posits that learning occurs through connections with the world, including other learners and community members, with a strong focus on the role of technology in facilitating these connections.

Key Concepts:

• Digital Literacy: Central to Connectivism, digital literacy involves the skills and abilities required to access online tools and sources and to interact with other users effectively.
• Personal Learning Networks (PLN): PLNs are groups of individuals who share interests and connect to share resources, information, or support, often within professional or educational spheres. They are crucial for career success in many fields today.

Implications for Instructional Design: Instructional designers, often working with online platforms, must consider how technology can facilitate student connections. Emphasizing Connectivism in design may involve:

• Prioritizing student interaction in fully online formats.
• Utilizing assignments or resources that connect students to PLNs or other online networks.
• Teaching learners about online resources and networks to aid their career development post-graduation.

Strengths and Limitations in Higher Education: Connectivism offers valuable insights for higher education, where courses range from face-to-face to fully online. It suggests that even in-person courses should acknowledge the virtual world’s role in learning. However, challenges include:

• Encouraging instructors who prioritize in-person interaction to integrate virtual elements.
• Ensuring that fully online courses foster meaningful student interaction beyond mimicking face-to-face experiences.
• Highlighting the importance of online resources and networks for students’ future professional success.

Example: EFL Class for Spanish Speakers

• ZPD:

  • Use digital tools to access and share English learning resources.
  • Participate in online forums or social media groups to practice English.
  • Connect with native English speakers for language exchange.

• Scaffolding and Connectivism Strategies:

  • Students use an online platform to find and share English language resources with classmates.
  • In small groups, students participate in a virtual discussion forum, posting in English and responding to peers.
  • Individually, students engage in a language exchange with native English speakers through a dedicated app or website.

Connectivism provides a framework for leveraging technology to create rich, interactive learning environments that prepare students for the interconnected, digital world. 

I discovered two UX/UI Design PLNs on LinkedIn. Since I frequently use LinkedIn, it’s the ideal platform to engage with a PLN. I decided to connect with Michal Malewicz, a prominent figure who shares valuable insights on UI design. He has his online community called Hype4 Academy, where he offers free challenges and networking opportunities. However, for personalized feedback on projects, you can pay a small monthly fee.

Additionally, I joined a group specifically for aspiring UX designers from the Google UX Professional Certificate program, including UX design experts and related fields. Both Michal Malewicz’s profile and this group offer abundant resources for continuous learning in UX/UI design and provide excellent networking opportunities with fellow designers.

Andragogy is a learning theory that focuses on adult learners and their experiences. While most pedagogy targets young learners, andragogy addresses the unique aspects of adult learning.

Malcolm Knowles coined the term andragogy in the 1980s and discussed the attributes of adult learners that affect their learning processes. Educators and instructional designers working with adults should prioritize activities that lead to success for this group.

There are five assumptions of andragogy that provide key insights into adult learners:

1. Self-Concept: Adults have a developed sense of self and can therefore learn more independently than young learners.
2. Adult Learner Experience: Adult learners have prior knowledge and experiences that they draw upon and build on in later learning experiences.
3. Readiness to Learn: Adults are prepared to learn, especially when it relates to their career or other needs.
4. Orientation to Learning: Adults expect to learn things relevant to their real-life needs and succeed when given situational or subject-specific learning tasks.
5. Motivation to Learn: Adults are likely to be intrinsically motivated and do not need as much support from the teacher or educational system.

Based on these five assumptions, there are six principles of adult learning:

1. Need to Know: Adults expect to understand why they are learning something and why it is important.
2. Experience: The basis of learning should be the students’ prior experiences.
3. Self-Concept: Adults expect autonomy and should have some control over the learning process.
4. Readiness: Adults expect to learn things that apply to real-life problem-solving.
5. Problem Orientation: Adults want to learn things that help them solve problems.
6. Intrinsic Motivation: Adults tend to be internally motivated and respond less to external motivation.

In 2023, I facilitated a Collaborative Online International Learning (COIL) project on organizational behavior and development. This project aimed to enhance students’ understanding of leadership and motivation within organizational contexts and improve their ability to apply theoretical concepts to practical scenarios.

Learning Scenario: The learning scenario involves students working in international teams to analyze a real-world organizational challenge related to leadership and motivation. They identify issues, propose solutions, and develop a comprehensive action plan to improve organizational effectiveness.

Formative Assessment: As a formative assessment, students individually research a specific organizational challenge and summarize an article related to the topic. This assessment helps gauge their understanding of key concepts and their ability to apply theoretical knowledge to practical situations.

Summative Assessment: For the summative assessment, students complete a group project where they analyze a chosen organization’s leadership and motivation strategies. They create a detailed report and presentation outlining their findings, proposed solutions, and an implementation plan. This project assesses their ability to collaborate, conduct in-depth research, and present their ideas effectively.

Authentic Assessment: An authentic assessment involves students developing a leadership and motivation workshop for a real organization. They design the workshop content, including interactive activities, case studies, and evaluation methods. This assessment is student-centered and authentic because it simulates a real-world task that professionals in organizational development undertake. It ties to the PBL model as it requires critical thinking, creativity, and practical application of knowledge.

Connections to Learning Theory: This learning scenario is well-aligned with the principles of andragogy, particularly:

1. Self-Concept: Students have autonomy in selecting the organization and developing their projects.
2. Experience: Students draw on their prior knowledge of organizational behavior and their research skills.
3. Readiness to Learn: The task is directly related to real-life applications in organizational development.
4. Problem Orientation: The project addresses real-world issues within organizations and promotes effective leadership and motivation strategies.
5. Intrinsic Motivation: Students are motivated by the relevance of the task to their future careers and interests.

By incorporating elements of andragogy and project-based learning, this activity ensures that adult learners are engaged, motivated, and able to apply their learning in meaningful ways.

Idea

This mini-course will facilitate professional development for early and mid-career university lecturers by teaching them safe drone operation practices and integrating drone technology into their teaching and research. Many educators are interested in using drones for research and educational purposes but may feel overwhelmed by the complexity of regulations, safety protocols, and technical skills required. This course will demystify drone operation, enabling lecturers to confidently incorporate drone technology into their professional activities.

Learning Theory Connection

Learning Theories:

1. Andragogy
2. Connectivism

Andragogy: Strengths:

• Focuses on the needs of adult learners, who bring significant life experiences and self-direction to the learning process.
• Emphasizes practical, problem-solving approaches that are directly applicable to real-world situations.
• Supports the intrinsic motivation of learners by addressing their specific interests and career-related goals.

Limitations:

• Assumes a high level of self-motivation and self-direction, which may not be present in all learners.
• May require additional support and resources for learners who are less experienced or confident in their abilities.

Application in Minicourse:

• Design Choices: Structure the course to allow learners to progress at their own pace, providing flexibility and accommodating varying levels of experience.
• Learning Activities: Include resources and guidance for obtaining certifications and licenses, addressing learners’ career-related goals.
• Assessments: Use authentic assessments, such as the development of a safety plan or the creation of a certification preparation guide, to provide practical, real-world applications of course content.

Connectivism: Strengths:

• Emphasizes the importance of networks and connections in the learning process, which aligns well with the collaborative nature of academia.
• Encourages learners to engage with a variety of resources and experts, enhancing their understanding through diverse perspectives.
• Supports the development of personal learning networks (PLNs), helping learners stay updated with the latest developments in their field.

Limitations:

• Learners may need guidance in navigating and evaluating the vast array of available resources and connections.
• Requires a level of digital literacy and comfort with online platforms that may vary among participants.

Application in Minicourse:

• Design Choices: Incorporate activities that encourage learners to engage with online communities, forums, and networks related to drone technology and academia.
• Learning Activities: Include lessons on building and maintaining PLNs, as well as strategies for finding and utilizing discipline-specific resources.
• Assessments: Use collaborative projects and peer reviews to foster connections and encourage knowledge sharing among participants.